view of the fountain and obelisk as seen from the Ganges photo taken by Jesse Kalisher
I. Introduction
In early June, 1651, Pope Innocent X had the pleasure of getting an exclusive visit to Bernini’s newly completed Four Rivers Fountain in the Piazza Navona, but was mildly disappointed as he turned to leave after being informed that he would have to wait to actually see the waterworks at play. Luckily, Bernini had anticipated his request and was prepared to surprise His Eminence by letting the water run when he least expected it. As the water began to gush out of the rugged mouths of the Four Rivers, Innocent exclaimed, “In giving us this unexpected joy, you have added ten years to our li[ves]!”[i] Although modern-day viewers of the fountain may not have the luxury of such a surprise as Innocent experienced at this first viewing, there is still a sense of “unexpected joy” that comes from turning a corner into the piazza and happening upon the Four Rivers. And one may even get the sense of rejuvenation that Innocent spoke of when taking in the rugged scenery of the fountain accompanied by the refreshing gushing of the water. This work that “looks as if a raw piece of nature had been left standing in the midst of a great city square”[ii] can indeed enliven the senses. And although one can now look upon the fountain with delight the story of its inception, commission and completion are fraught with tension and controversy. Bernini had to muscle his greatest rival, Borromini, out of his way for the commission while winning the approval of a Pope who had written him off as an unfavorable character. Simply obtaining the commission was a daunting task – not to mention balancing the nearly seventeen-meter obelisk on a hollowed base that is often considered an engineering marvel.[iii]
At the time Bernini obtained the commission it was certainly an upset as it was generally accepted that Borromini secured the commission for two reasons. The first was that he had engineered the Acqua Vergine[iv] to be diverted to feed the new fountain that would adorn the piazza in front of Innocent’ family palace, the Palazzo Pamphili. Moreover, it was Borromini who had the idea of creating a fountain depicting four major rivers that would symbolize the world’s then-known four continents.[v] As if Borromini’s close connection to the project was not a large enough obstacle in securing the commission, Bernini was not even asked to submit a design for the fountain as he was scorned by Innocent X for his friendship with the previous pope, Urban VIII. Urban was a member of the Barberini family, a lineage greatly despised by Innocent.[vi] How could Bernini possibly obtain this commission with so many barriers in his way of winning the Pope’s favor? Although there are many versions of the story, it is generally agreed that he did so with the help of his friend Prince Nicole Ludovisi who had recently become Innocent’s nephew through his marriage to Donna Costanza Pamphili. Already aware of Borromini’s idea of the four rivers, Bernini composed a miniature model of his design in silver and on August 15, 1647, when Innocent came to dine at the Palazzo Pamphili the model was strategically placed so that the Pope would have no choice but to view it.[vii] It is said that upon seeing the model, the Pope proclaimed, “we must indeed employ Bernini: although there are many who do not wish it; the only way to resist him is not to see his work”[viii]
In early June, 1651, Pope Innocent X had the pleasure of getting an exclusive visit to Bernini’s newly completed Four Rivers Fountain in the Piazza Navona, but was mildly disappointed as he turned to leave after being informed that he would have to wait to actually see the waterworks at play. Luckily, Bernini had anticipated his request and was prepared to surprise His Eminence by letting the water run when he least expected it. As the water began to gush out of the rugged mouths of the Four Rivers, Innocent exclaimed, “In giving us this unexpected joy, you have added ten years to our li[ves]!”[i] Although modern-day viewers of the fountain may not have the luxury of such a surprise as Innocent experienced at this first viewing, there is still a sense of “unexpected joy” that comes from turning a corner into the piazza and happening upon the Four Rivers. And one may even get the sense of rejuvenation that Innocent spoke of when taking in the rugged scenery of the fountain accompanied by the refreshing gushing of the water. This work that “looks as if a raw piece of nature had been left standing in the midst of a great city square”[ii] can indeed enliven the senses. And although one can now look upon the fountain with delight the story of its inception, commission and completion are fraught with tension and controversy. Bernini had to muscle his greatest rival, Borromini, out of his way for the commission while winning the approval of a Pope who had written him off as an unfavorable character. Simply obtaining the commission was a daunting task – not to mention balancing the nearly seventeen-meter obelisk on a hollowed base that is often considered an engineering marvel.[iii]
At the time Bernini obtained the commission it was certainly an upset as it was generally accepted that Borromini secured the commission for two reasons. The first was that he had engineered the Acqua Vergine[iv] to be diverted to feed the new fountain that would adorn the piazza in front of Innocent’ family palace, the Palazzo Pamphili. Moreover, it was Borromini who had the idea of creating a fountain depicting four major rivers that would symbolize the world’s then-known four continents.[v] As if Borromini’s close connection to the project was not a large enough obstacle in securing the commission, Bernini was not even asked to submit a design for the fountain as he was scorned by Innocent X for his friendship with the previous pope, Urban VIII. Urban was a member of the Barberini family, a lineage greatly despised by Innocent.[vi] How could Bernini possibly obtain this commission with so many barriers in his way of winning the Pope’s favor? Although there are many versions of the story, it is generally agreed that he did so with the help of his friend Prince Nicole Ludovisi who had recently become Innocent’s nephew through his marriage to Donna Costanza Pamphili. Already aware of Borromini’s idea of the four rivers, Bernini composed a miniature model of his design in silver and on August 15, 1647, when Innocent came to dine at the Palazzo Pamphili the model was strategically placed so that the Pope would have no choice but to view it.[vii] It is said that upon seeing the model, the Pope proclaimed, “we must indeed employ Bernini: although there are many who do not wish it; the only way to resist him is not to see his work”[viii]
And so by his artistic talent and a little favor from his friend Nicole, Bernini overcame the obstacles that stood between him and the commission of the Four Rivers Fountain. Almost a year passed before the commission was officially awarded on July 10, 1648[ix] and Bernini began creating terra cotta models that would guide his assistants in carving the four giant river gods, assembling the mountainous base out of a series of interlocking travertine blocks,[x] and had the huge red granite obelisk transferred to the piazza in August 1648.[xi] From the time Bernini received the commission, it was only three years until the fountain was opened for public viewing.
II. Description
The basic plan for the Four Rivers fountain was an arching base adorned with four larger-than-life figures that worked to support the giant obelisk that Innocent had removed and reassembled from the Circus Maxentius on the Appian Way. This particular obelisk was believed to have been brought from Egypt to Rome by emperor Antoninus Caracalla[xii] and is one of only five obelisks made in the period of Roman occupation of Egypt that stand in Rome today.[xiii]
One of Innocent’s main aims of using the obelisk as part of the fountain was to display it prominently so as to show the greatness and power of his family, the Pamphili, whose palazzo was in the Piazza Navona, but it was certainly upstaged by the incredible Baroque spectacle of Bernini’s supporting fountain. The Baroque style of Bernini, and this fountain in particular, shows striking differences from the artistic styles that both preceded and followed it, namely Renaissance style and Mannerism, respectively. It deviated both in subject matter – the natural, raw figures, animals, and vegetation and in its lack of complete symmetry, showing the characteristic wild, fluid feeling of Baroque sculpture. It is this feeling of fluidity that is not only appropriate for a work whose subject matter is water, but that gives the fountain an incredible elegance. Each figure flows to the next effortlessly, and the viewer is prompted to follow the lines of the river gods in a circle around the fountain. One can also see a classical influence on Bernini’s conception of the river gods as each figure is reclining.
II. Description
The basic plan for the Four Rivers fountain was an arching base adorned with four larger-than-life figures that worked to support the giant obelisk that Innocent had removed and reassembled from the Circus Maxentius on the Appian Way. This particular obelisk was believed to have been brought from Egypt to Rome by emperor Antoninus Caracalla[xii] and is one of only five obelisks made in the period of Roman occupation of Egypt that stand in Rome today.[xiii]
One of Innocent’s main aims of using the obelisk as part of the fountain was to display it prominently so as to show the greatness and power of his family, the Pamphili, whose palazzo was in the Piazza Navona, but it was certainly upstaged by the incredible Baroque spectacle of Bernini’s supporting fountain. The Baroque style of Bernini, and this fountain in particular, shows striking differences from the artistic styles that both preceded and followed it, namely Renaissance style and Mannerism, respectively. It deviated both in subject matter – the natural, raw figures, animals, and vegetation and in its lack of complete symmetry, showing the characteristic wild, fluid feeling of Baroque sculpture. It is this feeling of fluidity that is not only appropriate for a work whose subject matter is water, but that gives the fountain an incredible elegance. Each figure flows to the next effortlessly, and the viewer is prompted to follow the lines of the river gods in a circle around the fountain. One can also see a classical influence on Bernini’s conception of the river gods as each figure is reclining.
view of the fountain that demonstrates the fluidity and embellishment (i.e. rosebush bottom left and palm tree top center) of the work from http://eternallycool.net/2008/12/scaffolding-comes-off-the-fountain-of-the-four-rivers/
The four rivers that were chosen to depict the four continents of the known world are the Danube as Europe, the Nile as Africa, the Ganges as Asia, and the Rio de la Plata as the New World. Bernini had a select group of assistants working on the fountain with him, among them the stonemason G.M. Fracchi, who worked on the travertine base and Nicolò Sale who was assigned to the bronze Pamphili dove that holds an olive branch and adorns the very top of the obelisk.[xiv] He then had one assistant to work on each river in a competition for whoever could execute Bernini’s designs the best; Francesso Barratta completed the Rio de la Plata, Antonio Raggi worked on the Danube, Claude Poussin executed the Ganges, and Giovanni Antonio Fancelli was assigned to the Nile.[xv] Each river god is surrounded by defining flora, fauna, or features that would indicate to viewers of the time which continent it was meant to represent.
The Rio de la Plata river god, for example, depicts a slave with a shackle around his ankle surrounded by silver coins that signify the riches of the New World. Moreover, he is accompanied by an exotic cactus and an animal sometimes called an alligator but more likely an armadillo, an animal that Bernini had never actually seen. Nonetheless, it is believed that Bernini carved all of the animals and many of the other accoutrements of the gods with his own hand.[xvi] Something of particular note about the figure of the Rio de la Plata is that it is often said that Bernini designed it to be shading his eyes in horror, as this figure faces directly towards Borromini’s facade of Sant’Agnese in Agone. This, however, is a misconception, as construction on the facade had not begun when Bernini’s design was created.[xvii] It is more likely that the Plata is shielding his eyes from the radiant light of the Faith that was symbolized by the obelisk.[xviii] The Danube is also surrounded the defining characteristics of his continent, a horse and rosebush. The Ganges is depicted with a long oar signifying its navigability along with a dragon. Finally, the Nile is shown with a palm and a lion and he also has his head covered showing that the source of the Nile was at that time still a mystery.
III. Function
Innocent’s original intent behind the function of the fountain in the Piazza Navona was to adorn the piazza in front of his family’s Palazzo Pamphili. In doing so, he wished to assert the greatness of his family name, especially their greatness over his rivals the Barberini. The fountain also functioned to please the Roman people as every summer it would be used to flood the piazza to create the Lago di Piazza Navona which offered respite to the hot Roman summers.[xix] The obelisk that Innocent erected atop the fountain certainly commands a daunting presence in the piazza, so much so that at the fountain’s inception many critics believed that the base was not stable enough to support such a massive piece of stone. Bernini was however confident in his work and satirized these critics by attaching four pieces of twine from the apex of the obelisk to nails hammered into the houses in the piazza.[xx] And as time has proven, he had no reason to worry about the stability of his monument, as it has stood for over 350 years.
The Rio de la Plata river god, for example, depicts a slave with a shackle around his ankle surrounded by silver coins that signify the riches of the New World. Moreover, he is accompanied by an exotic cactus and an animal sometimes called an alligator but more likely an armadillo, an animal that Bernini had never actually seen. Nonetheless, it is believed that Bernini carved all of the animals and many of the other accoutrements of the gods with his own hand.[xvi] Something of particular note about the figure of the Rio de la Plata is that it is often said that Bernini designed it to be shading his eyes in horror, as this figure faces directly towards Borromini’s facade of Sant’Agnese in Agone. This, however, is a misconception, as construction on the facade had not begun when Bernini’s design was created.[xvii] It is more likely that the Plata is shielding his eyes from the radiant light of the Faith that was symbolized by the obelisk.[xviii] The Danube is also surrounded the defining characteristics of his continent, a horse and rosebush. The Ganges is depicted with a long oar signifying its navigability along with a dragon. Finally, the Nile is shown with a palm and a lion and he also has his head covered showing that the source of the Nile was at that time still a mystery.
III. Function
Innocent’s original intent behind the function of the fountain in the Piazza Navona was to adorn the piazza in front of his family’s Palazzo Pamphili. In doing so, he wished to assert the greatness of his family name, especially their greatness over his rivals the Barberini. The fountain also functioned to please the Roman people as every summer it would be used to flood the piazza to create the Lago di Piazza Navona which offered respite to the hot Roman summers.[xix] The obelisk that Innocent erected atop the fountain certainly commands a daunting presence in the piazza, so much so that at the fountain’s inception many critics believed that the base was not stable enough to support such a massive piece of stone. Bernini was however confident in his work and satirized these critics by attaching four pieces of twine from the apex of the obelisk to nails hammered into the houses in the piazza.[xx] And as time has proven, he had no reason to worry about the stability of his monument, as it has stood for over 350 years.
So while the work is a personal triumph of Bernini’s and the monument is an emblem of the triumph of the Pamphili, the Four Rivers fountain simultaneously functions as a demonstration of many other triumphs. Firstly, it symbolizes the triumph of man and society over nature as the obelisk, “symbol of order and wisdom,”[xxi] towers over Bernini’s simulation of nature’s forces at the base of the column. The monument also serves many other symbolic purposes that relate the power of the Catholic Church to the obelisk. The symbol of the Pamphili dove situated on top of the mammoth once-pagan obelisk speaks to the triumph of the Catholic Church over paganism. Along with this, if one considering the representation of the four known continents at the base of the monument, the fountain then states the triumph of the Catholic Church over all the world. More than this even, keeping in mind the Pamphili dove at the top of the obelisk, it demonstrates the overarching authority of the Pope in all corners of the known world.
In all of these areas the monument is successful in proving the domination of the human race and more specifically of the Catholic Church, but it was not particularly well-received at the time of its dedication. Although the people of Rome were awed by the elegance and awesomeness of the fountain, it came at a high cost to them. High taxes were imposed to pay for the heavy costs of the movement of the obelisk, the labor of the job, and for Bernini’s large commission. The taxes were so despised in fact that a famous quip was thrown about the city at the time of the fountain’s construction: “We need other than spires and fountains.Bread we want: bread, bread, bread.”[xxii] In light of this, we see that for a time the Roman people did not appreciate the functions of the fountain – or at least the impact that it had on their pocketbooks.
IV. Concerns of the Patron
Although Innocent was at first concerned that the immensity and intricacy of Bernini’s sculpture would upstage his prized obelisk which was meant to symbolize so much about himself and his family, he could not deny the elegance and artistic quality of the work. Soon, the Pope came to realize that the greatness of the fountain would work to increase his renown and to accomplish that ever-present goal in Roman history – immortality through fame and remembrance. If the fountain would be prized for ages, then the Pamphili name was sure to live for as long as the monument remained.
In all of these areas the monument is successful in proving the domination of the human race and more specifically of the Catholic Church, but it was not particularly well-received at the time of its dedication. Although the people of Rome were awed by the elegance and awesomeness of the fountain, it came at a high cost to them. High taxes were imposed to pay for the heavy costs of the movement of the obelisk, the labor of the job, and for Bernini’s large commission. The taxes were so despised in fact that a famous quip was thrown about the city at the time of the fountain’s construction: “We need other than spires and fountains.Bread we want: bread, bread, bread.”[xxii] In light of this, we see that for a time the Roman people did not appreciate the functions of the fountain – or at least the impact that it had on their pocketbooks.
IV. Concerns of the Patron
Although Innocent was at first concerned that the immensity and intricacy of Bernini’s sculpture would upstage his prized obelisk which was meant to symbolize so much about himself and his family, he could not deny the elegance and artistic quality of the work. Soon, the Pope came to realize that the greatness of the fountain would work to increase his renown and to accomplish that ever-present goal in Roman history – immortality through fame and remembrance. If the fountain would be prized for ages, then the Pamphili name was sure to live for as long as the monument remained.
It has also been asserted that some of the details of the monument may speak to other concerns of Innocent as the fountain was designed. Firstly, the use of the obelisk can be related Sixtus V’s use of obelisks as counter-reformation monuments.[xxiii] As one of Innocent’s main goals of Pope was to regain areas that had been lost to Protestants under the rule of Urban VIII, the use of a counter-reformation throw-back would be important in his monument. This message is also examined by scholar Mary Christian in her exploration of Bernini’s use of the Danube as opposed to the Tiber to represent the continent of Europe. As she points out, “The region around the Danube was far from a bastion of Catholicism in the seventeenth century.”[xxiv] Nonetheless, through Innocent’s diplomacy, he had regained some of the areas around the Danube that had been lost by Urban,[xxv] hence the figure of the Danube was probably chosen over the Tiber as it was more important to Innocent to show his superiority over his predecessor than to represent the river that runs alongside the papal territory.
The Papal Crest and the Danube twisting to support it
V. Conclusion
One of the most obvious and lasting legacies of the Four Rivers Fountain is another Roman fountain that is often heralded to be its direct descendant, the Trevi Fountain. The history of the Trevi is so closely related to that of the Four Rivers, in fact, that “tradition has it that Bernini made plans for the entire project and that these plans were adopted one hundred years later by the architect Nicole Salvi and the sculptor Pietro Braco.”[xxvi] Although many people think that Bernini had a hand in the present design of the Trevi, Cooke says that there are many reasons to believe otherwise, that the Four Rivers was simply a strong influence and inspiration to the Trevi designers. He claims that “the clearest proof that Bernini was not in any way associated with the present design is the negative fact that his name was never mentioned by any of the many archivists of the eighteenth century in connection with the present fountain, though it was built at a time when his reputation […] was at its height.”[xxvii] In any case, it is safe to say that without the Four Rivers, Rome would not have the same Trevi that it has today.
Even if the fountain lacked this important legacy, the lasting impression that the Four Rivers still leaves upon the modern visitor is notable. As previously mentioned, the fountain has a beautiful, elegant motion to it that inspires the viewer to be moved not only physically around the fountain, but mentally as well. It recalls a rustic, natural scene in the middle of the Roman metropolis, while simultaneously extolling the greatness of man and society. All of these things are just as meaningful to the modern viewer as they were the day that Bernini carved them out of the marble. Some things that have changed, however, are peoples’ worldviews – the way that people look at other continents and other people. For this reason, it is interesting to look at the artistic representation of a seventeenth-century Italian worldview and to draw from this how people thought about other populations and places in their known world.
VI. What I found most interesting.
What piqued my interest the most while researching and composing my project on the Four Rivers fountain was the wide variety of symbolism associated with the work. The poignancy of the obelisk sitting atop symbols of the known earthly world has many repercussions associated with the Papacy, the Pamphili, and the political scene of the time. The factor of symbolism in art is something that always interests me and I think intrigues many people to attempt to decipher the true aim of the artist.
Works Cited
Boris, Franco. Bernini. New York, NY: Rizzoli. 1984, p314
Christian, Mary. “Bernini’s Danube and Pamphili Policy.” The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 128, No. 998 (May, 1986), p. 354
Cooke, Hereward Lester Jr. “The Documents Relating to the Fountain of the Trevi.” The Burlington Magazine Vol. 38, No. 3 (Sep., 1956), p149, 152
Fokker, T.H. Roman Baroque Art: the History of a Style. New York, NY: Hacker Art Books. 1972, p217-18
Held, Julius S. and Posner, Donald. 17th and 18th Century Art: Baroque. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams. 1979, p64
Marder, T.A. Bernini and the Art of Architecture. New York, NY: Abbeville Press. 1998, p 20
Magnuson, Torgil. Rome in the Age of Bernini. New Jersey: Humanities Press. 1986, p81
Morrissey, Jake. The Genius in the Design: Bernini, Borromini, and the Rivalry that Transformed Rome. New York, NY: Harper-Collins. 2005, p212
“NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Vatican Obelisk.” NationMaster - World Statistics, Country Comparisons. 14 Feb. 2009.
Scribner, Charles III. Bernini. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams. 1991, colorplate 26
Wittkower, Rudolf. “A New Bust of Pope Urban VIII by Bernini.” The Burlington Magazine Vol. 111, No. 791. Feb 1969, p60
[i] Morrissey, Jake. The Genius in the Design: Bernini, Borromini, and the Rivalry that Transformed Rome. New York, NY: Harper-Collins. 2005, p212
[ii] Held, Julius S. and Posner, Donald. 17th and 18th Century Art: Baroque. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams. 1979, p64
[iii] “NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Vatican Obelisk.” NationMaster - World Statistics, Country Comparisons. 14 Feb. 2009.
[iv] Marder, T.A. Bernini and the Art of Architecture. New York, NY: Abbeville Press. 1998, p 20
[v] Morrissey 203
[vi] Wittkower, Rudolf. “A New Bust of Pope Urban VIII by Bernini.” The Burlington Magazine Vol. 111, No. 791. Feb 1969, p60
[vii] Morrissey 205-6
[viii] Magnuson, Torgil. Rome in the Age of Bernini. New Jersey: Humanities Press. 1986, p81
[ix] Morrissey 207
[x] Scribner, Charles III. Bernini. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams. 1991, colorplate 26
[xi] Fokker, T.H. Roman Baroque Art: the History of a Style. New York, NY: Hacker Art Books. 1972, p217-18
[xii] Morrissey 203
[xiii] “Nationmaster”
[xiv] Morrissey 210
[xv] Boris, Franco. Bernini. New York, NY: Rizzoli. 1984, p314
[xvi] Morrissey 210
[xvii] Marder 97
[xviii] Scribner 26
[xix] Scribner 26
[xx] Marder 100
[xxi] Held 64
[xxii] Magnuson 83
[xxiii] Scribner 26
[xxiv] Christian, Mary. “Bernini’s Danube and Pamphili Policy.” The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 128, No. 998 (May, 1986), p. 354
[xxv] Christian 355
[xxvi] Cooke, Hereward Lester Jr. “The Documents Relating to the Fountain of the Trevi.” The Burlington Magazine Vol. 38, No. 3 (Sep., 1956), p149
[xxvii] Cooke 152
VI. What I found most interesting.
What piqued my interest the most while researching and composing my project on the Four Rivers fountain was the wide variety of symbolism associated with the work. The poignancy of the obelisk sitting atop symbols of the known earthly world has many repercussions associated with the Papacy, the Pamphili, and the political scene of the time. The factor of symbolism in art is something that always interests me and I think intrigues many people to attempt to decipher the true aim of the artist.
Works Cited
Boris, Franco. Bernini. New York, NY: Rizzoli. 1984, p314
Christian, Mary. “Bernini’s Danube and Pamphili Policy.” The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 128, No. 998 (May, 1986), p. 354
Cooke, Hereward Lester Jr. “The Documents Relating to the Fountain of the Trevi.” The Burlington Magazine Vol. 38, No. 3 (Sep., 1956), p149, 152
Fokker, T.H. Roman Baroque Art: the History of a Style. New York, NY: Hacker Art Books. 1972, p217-18
Held, Julius S. and Posner, Donald. 17th and 18th Century Art: Baroque. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams. 1979, p64
Marder, T.A. Bernini and the Art of Architecture. New York, NY: Abbeville Press. 1998, p 20
Magnuson, Torgil. Rome in the Age of Bernini. New Jersey: Humanities Press. 1986, p81
Morrissey, Jake. The Genius in the Design: Bernini, Borromini, and the Rivalry that Transformed Rome. New York, NY: Harper-Collins. 2005, p212
“NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Vatican Obelisk.” NationMaster - World Statistics, Country Comparisons. 14 Feb. 2009
Scribner, Charles III. Bernini. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams. 1991, colorplate 26
Wittkower, Rudolf. “A New Bust of Pope Urban VIII by Bernini.” The Burlington Magazine Vol. 111, No. 791. Feb 1969, p60
[i] Morrissey, Jake. The Genius in the Design: Bernini, Borromini, and the Rivalry that Transformed Rome. New York, NY: Harper-Collins. 2005, p212
[ii] Held, Julius S. and Posner, Donald. 17th and 18th Century Art: Baroque. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams. 1979, p64
[iii] “NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Vatican Obelisk.” NationMaster - World Statistics, Country Comparisons. 14 Feb. 2009
[iv] Marder, T.A. Bernini and the Art of Architecture. New York, NY: Abbeville Press. 1998, p 20
[v] Morrissey 203
[vi] Wittkower, Rudolf. “A New Bust of Pope Urban VIII by Bernini.” The Burlington Magazine Vol. 111, No. 791. Feb 1969, p60
[vii] Morrissey 205-6
[viii] Magnuson, Torgil. Rome in the Age of Bernini. New Jersey: Humanities Press. 1986, p81
[ix] Morrissey 207
[x] Scribner, Charles III. Bernini. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams. 1991, colorplate 26
[xi] Fokker, T.H. Roman Baroque Art: the History of a Style. New York, NY: Hacker Art Books. 1972, p217-18
[xii] Morrissey 203
[xiii] “Nationmaster”
[xiv] Morrissey 210
[xv] Boris, Franco. Bernini. New York, NY: Rizzoli. 1984, p314
[xvi] Morrissey 210
[xvii] Marder 97
[xviii] Scribner 26
[xix] Scribner 26
[xx] Marder 100
[xxi] Held 64
[xxii] Magnuson 83
[xxiii] Scribner 26
[xxiv] Christian, Mary. “Bernini’s Danube and Pamphili Policy.” The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 128, No. 998 (May, 1986), p. 354
[xxv] Christian 355
[xxvi] Cooke, Hereward Lester Jr. “The Documents Relating to the Fountain of the Trevi.” The Burlington Magazine Vol. 38, No. 3 (Sep., 1956), p149
[xxvii] Cooke 152
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